The Puritan-led Commonwealth of —60, an outbreak of plague in , and the Great Fire of virtually still the artistic production of the region. In the wake of these catastrophic events, however, a generation of native-born artists plants the seeds of a distinctly British school of painting and architecture. Influenced through earlier periods by movements and styles from other countries—such as the Italian Baroque and French Rococo—England is, in the eighteenth century, the seat of two major cultural movements— Neoclassicism and Romanticism—that give new shape to the arts.
The Metropolitan Museum of Art. In a time when only limited foodstuffs were available, people depended heavily upon the harvest. But the food eaten by the working classes — primarily legume-based dishes and pottages — were in some respects more healthy than that chosen by the wealthy, who typically indulged in meaty, rich diets and sugar-heavy desserts. The latter diet often resulted, unsurprisingly, in a variety of ailments — not least haemorrhoids. Few in Stuart Britain, it seems, appreciated the benefits of a fibre-rich diet!
The vast majority of people in Stuart Britain resided in agricultural villages, while the rest lived in the towns and cities. These were typically crowded and insalubrious, especially in the most congested city, London. Indeed, it was from the slums of St Giles in London that the Great Plague of is believed to have spread.
Wealthier merchants, whom we would today tend to classify as middle-class, largely prospered during the Stuart period. When the plague catastrophically swept through London in , it was this group of people who, like the aristocracy above them, were better able to flee from that scene of pestilence to parts of the countryside where plague was less likely.
In towns, people were employed as shoemakers, smithies, tailors, porters, saddlers, glovers and chimney sweeps, among other things. On the streets were people selling a variety of objects — from mops to oysters — and human wares: prostitution.
Those who worked in agriculture had jobs involving all aspects of husbandry, including milking cows, collecting eggs from chickens, toiling in the fields, and other tasks associated with livestock and crop cultivation. Within the domestic sphere there were clearly defined roles for the sexes, and sexual inequality was generally regarded as perfectly natural.
Women were bound to obey their fathers and brothers, then their husbands, and then their sons. This role grew more prominent with more wealth, as with that came more estate to manage.
Marriage was also very closely tied to social class; women were seldom married into lower social rungs. Role of Women and Men. Marriage Due to the the importance of land, daughters posed a large problem for landowning families. Other than widows, not many women owned land, and many daughters certainly did not receive any—so they did not carry an estate with them upon marriage.
Also, it was important for families to maintain social status, which meant a daughter was never married to someone of lower standing. Mothers and fathers spent much time searching for the the best possible spouse for their child, in order to benefit the family. As a result, families typically placed a dowry on their daughter, which consisted of a large sum of money.
Then came along another problem: The idea of individualism, reason, and romantic sensibility began growing rapidly in the early part of the century leading to daughters wanting to choose their own husbands. For poor families, not nearly as much was at stake when marrying, thus relieving pressure.
It was impossible to transfer poverty to one another or to lose any kind of societal status as a result of a marriage, so men and women were free to choose who they wanted. Family Life After Marriage Many issues and concerns were brought up during the process of arranged marriages. The concept of a strictly male-controlled, nuclear family began spreading once puritanical influence intensified in the 17th century.
Many of the wealthy ignored their children because their vast fortunes allowed them to. In poorer families, it was unpredictable what the structure and attitude was like inside the household; it could be dangerous, warming, or all around indifferent.
Another problem for impoverished families, as previously mentioned, was an increased infant mortality rate. Yet, this was mostly offset by large birthing rates, which often compensated for this facet.
For the most part, these households, ranging from rich to poor, owned animals of some sort. The upper class had a collection of animals ranging from dogs to horses with the extraneous instance of some having pet monkeys.
The middle class mostly had cats and birds along with dogs who could act as protection for the household. The poorer families mostly had animals who could provide food for the families, such as cows, pigs, and geese.
Divorce and Separation Divorce was carried out through Parliament and was a lengthy and extremely expensive process reserved mainly for the bourgeoisie. Between and , only 13 cases of divorce were reported. These separations could be made in private agreement or in public, ecclesiastical court.
Many lived in one or two room houses that were often crowded with large families, as well as lodgers that shared their living space.
Women typically gave birth to eight to ten children; however, due to high mortality rates, only raised five or six children. The children of average or poor families began working very early on in life, sometimes even as early as age seven. They worked mostly on farms as shepherds, cowherds, or apprentices and often left home to do so. Daughters of these families remained home, often aiding the matriarch of the household until they found a husband and started a family of their own.
The oldest son of each family would stay as home as well, in order to inherit the farm. The concept of inheritance was often a source of tension for many families. The average and poor families of the late 17th century England did not yet have the luxury of piped water, which created a rarity in bathing. Because of the unhygienic lifestyle, lice and vermin were very common with these families. Upper Class Wealthy families of the late 17th century England enjoyed many more luxuries than the average and poor families.
As opposed to the rural properties of the average families, the wealthy lived in beautiful suburbs or villages. Houses were beginning to be designed to display and boast the wealth of the families that lived in them. For the first time, the wealthy were enjoying the luxury of piped water into their homes. These homes contained families with an average of ten or more people. The women of these households were responsible for keeping everything running smoothly.
They were in charge of the servants and ran the estate if the husband was not around. Similarities Between Families in Both Classes Despite the difference in economic status, there were many similarities between wealthy and average or poor families. In both families marriages were more of a business deal than a relationship. Love was not a factor in a marriage in 17th century England. A woman typically married in her early twenties. Arranged marriages occurred primarily for resources such as money and land.
It was expected that a man would beat his wife and not seen as an issue. Children did not have close relationships with their parents or siblings either. High infant mortality rate was a common issue and the reason why many women had a high number of childbirths but a lower number of children.
Labor In agricultural families, men, for the most part, took care of the majority of the household income. In 16th century England, most of the population lived in small villages and made their living from farming.
However, towns grew larger and more important. During the 16th century trade and industry grew rapidly and England became a more and more commercial country. Mining of coal, tin, and lead flourished. So did the iron industry. During this period England became richer and richer.
As England grew more and more prosperous life for the well off became more and more comfortable. Upper-class and middle-class people benefited from the growing wealth of the country. However, for the poor in Tudor England life did not improve. For them, life was hard and rough. Meanwhile, in the 15th century, the population of England may have been around 2 and a half million.
It rose steadily during the 16th century. By it had risen to around 3 million and by it was about 4 million. Tudor society was divided into four broad groups. At the top were the nobility who owned huge amounts of land. Below them were the gentry and rich merchants. Gentlemen owned large amounts of land and they were usually educated and had a family coat of arms.
Most important gentlemen never did any manual work. Below the gentry were yeomen and craftsmen. Yeomen owned their own land. They could be as wealthy as gentlemen but they worked alongside their men.
Yeomen and craftsmen were often able to read and write. Below the yeomen were the tenant farmers who leased their land from the rich. There were also wage laborers. They were often illiterate and very poor. In Tudor Times the parish became the basis of local government. The most important person was an appointed magistrate called the Justice of the Peace. Meanwhile in Tudor Times kings and queens grew stronger. During the Middle Ages, the barons held castles, which were difficult to capture so it was easy for them to rebel.
Cannons changed all that. In the 16th century, jobs were not always easy to find. In Tudor times there were thousands of people without jobs wandering around looking for work.
There were also disabled beggars. There were also people who pretended to be mad or disabled in order to beg. Tudor governments tolerated disabled beggars.
However, they did not tolerate able-bodied people without jobs wandering from place to place. Since the 14th century, there had been laws against vagabonds but in a new law was passed. The old and disabled poor were to be given licenses to beg. However, anyone roaming without a job was tied to a cart in the nearest market town and whipped till they were bloody. They were then forced to return to the parish where they had been born or where they had lived for the last 3 years.
A law of said vagabonds could be made slaves for 2 years. This terrible law was abolished in Once again flogging was made the punishment for vagrancy. In Tudor Times prison was seldom used as a punishment. Instead, people were held in prison until trial then the prisoner was given a physical punishment.
Tudor punishments were simple but harsh like flogging. Minor crimes were also punished by the pillory or the stocks. The frame was then locked. More serious crimes were punished by death.
Beheading was reserved for the wealthy. Ordinary people were usually hanged. In the 16th century, life was safer so houses no longer had to be easy to defend. Rich Tudor people built grand houses e. Cardinal Wolsey built Hampton Court Palace. They were made with a timber frame filled in with wattle and daub wickerwork and plaster. In the late 16th century some people built or rebuilt their houses with a wooden frame filled in with bricks.
Roofs were usually thatched though some well-off people had tiles. In London all houses had tiles because of the fear of fire. In Tudor Times furniture was more plentiful than in the Middle Ages but it was still basic. In a wealthy home, it was usually made of oak and was heavy and massive. Tudor furniture was expected to last for generations. You expected to pass it on to your children and even your grandchildren. Comfortable beds became more and more common in the 16th century.
In a middle-class Tudor home, a mattress was often stuffed with flock a kind of rough wool. Chairs were more common than in the Middle Ages but they were still expensive. Even in upper-class homes children and servants sat on stools. The poor had to make do with stools and benches. In the 15th century, only a small minority of people could afford glass windows. In the 16th century, they became much more common. However, they were still expensive.
If you moved house you took your glass windows with you! Windows were made of small pieces of glass held together by strips of lead. They were called lattice windows. However the poor still had to make do with strips of linen soaked in linseed oil. Chimneys were also a luxury in Tudor Times, although they became more common. It extended all the way up to the roof of the building.
In the 16th century, many people installed another story in their house over the great hall. People slept in four-poster beds hung with curtains to reduce drafts. Wealthy people hung tapestries or painted cloths on their walls. In Tudor, England carpets were a luxury only the rich could afford. They were usually too expensive to put on the floor!
Instead, they were often hung on the wall or over tables. People covered their floors with rushes or reeds, which they strewed with sweet-smelling herbs.
In the 16th century, wealthy people lit their homes with beeswax candles. However, they were expensive.
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